This marks the end of our blog. Thank you everyone for reading, we hope you learned as much as we have. If you are interested in more information about the vikings, check out these websites.
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Thursday, April 26, 2012
Viking Descendants
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| Viking Descendants exist today and relish in their heritage |
Tracing Vikings with Disease
The word Viking conjures the classic image of burly men with bronzed skin, glistening blonde hair, and bulging muscles. However, a recent study of the inflammatory, degenerative nerve disease multiple sclerosis, which results in loss of brain and motor function over a period of years, found it to be more common amongst Viking descendants in Western Europe and across the Atlantic (Poser 1995: 11). Researchers hypothesize that the Vikings were instrumental in disseminating the genetic weaknesses and abnormalities that lead to this disease. This path can be traced from Scandinavia, where the majority of the modern-day population is descended from Vikings; the first Viking voyages were funded by Scandinavian elite, and the spread of multiple sclerosis can probably be attributed to this cultural group. (Downham 2012: 5) Even though this puts a damper on the view of the Vikings as a strong, infallible culture, discovering this link provides a unique method of tracing Viking influence through existing descendant populations.
Iceland and Greenland
Evidence of Descendant Viking population not only found in human remains
The term Viking is the commonly used term to categorize the 9th-10th century Scandinavians Northern Europe. However, in the Nordic countries it is much more common for people to differentiate between the small group which went abroad to rape and plunder, where as the much larger group stayed behind and or colonized uninhabited lands (Vésteinsson 2005:1). This theory therefore makes the assumption that the settlers of Iceland were not Vikings, but possibly ex-Vikings, according to the Icelandic sense of the word Viking.
Ancient discoveries and evidence shows that Iceland was settled in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, primarily by people of the Norse, i.e. Viking origin (Nofi and Dunnigan 1997:1). The notorious Vikings, traveled/explored, traded and fought for land all over Europe, and during this time period they managed to settle in land of the North Atlantic, particularly Iceland and Greenland (Vésteinsson 2005:1). They began colonizing Iceland in the late 800’s and descendants are still believed to be there.
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| Rat DNA was used to verify Viking descendents |
Dr Eleanor Jones, from the University of York, said: ‘Human settlement history over the last 1,000 years is reflected in the genetic sequence of mouse mitochondrial DNA. We can match the pattern of human populations to that of the house mice’ (Waugh 2012:1). The most obvious explanation for this is the mice simply made their way onto the Viking ships and long boats during the Vikings exploration, and when the Vikings settled in Iceland and Greenland, so did the mice. As out of the ordinary as this may seem, it gives people yet more understanding and answers about past cultures, in this case the mighty Vikings. This goes to show that archaeologists do not always have to discover human remains, treasures, or other buried goods to learn about ancient cultures and their descendant populations.
Sources
Downham, Clare. "Viking Ethnicities: A Historiographic Overview." History Compass 10.1 (2012): 1-12. Print.
Nofi and Dunnigan. 1997. “Vikings and Normans.” Retrieved from: http://www.hyw.com/books/history/vikings_.htm April 19, 2012.
Orri Vésteinsson. Where have remains of the Vikings been found?“. The Icelandic Web of Science 5.3.2005. (Skoðað 19.4.2012). Retrieved from: http://www.why.is/svar.php?id=4790. April 19, 2012.
Poser, C. M. "Viking Voyages: The Origin of Multiple Sclerosis?: An Essay in Medical History." Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 91.S161 (1995): 11-22. Web. 23 Apr. 2012.
Waugh, Rob. March 19, 2012. How the Vikings invaded with fire, the sword... and MICE: Rodents 'hitched lifts' on longboats in 10th Century. Retrieved from: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ April 15, 2012.
Thursday, April 12, 2012
Viking Burials: The Aftermath
Caught up in all the gore and theatrics of Viking deaths, it is easy to forget that the story of Norse burials does not end with the funeral pyre. The funerary escapades of the still-living Vikings often go unnoticed, as they are hard to ascertain from archaeological record, and do not hold the same morbid fascination as ship burials and human sacrifice. However, in order to fully flesh out the story we have thus far told, it is important to examine what happened to those Vikings lucky enough to live past the funeral rites. How did they handle the death of a loved one? Who walked away with the fortune of the deceased?
Celebration and Mourning
As we have already established, Viking funerals were a somewhat participatory event, not unlike many Western funerals today; Ibn Fadlan's famous account tells of all the male relatives and servants of the deceased taking an active part in the ceremony by contributing grave goods, man power, eulogies, or perhaps in some cases, sexual prowess (Frye 2005: 70). Following the funeral, the nature of this participation changed. Vikings were famous for their "characteristic reserve" and stoic acceptance of death; ethnography tells us that the extent of pious mourning was the draping of black and gray fabrics over the deceased's place of residence (Williams 1920: 421). Even this small tradition did not develop until the Scandinavian Vikings encountered Christianity sometime around the eighth century (Williams 2011: 2). Open displays of grief went against Viking tradition.
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| Tune Stone, Norway |
Drunkenness seems to have been the primary emotion experienced by the Vikings following death. The Viking funeral ale, or arvale, was a hugely important part of paying respect to death and celebrating life. The party could be held any time between the seventh and thirtieth days following the funeral (Williams 1920: 428). The Tune runestone, found in Ostfold, Norway, describes a feast that was organized by the family and lasted for days, with countless toasts in honor of the dead. The stone, one of many stone monuments recovered from the Viking era, paints the feast as a large gathering of all the villagers, where the dead man was represented by an open seat at the head of the party (Spurkland 2005: 35). In some cases, as in the famous case of Shelty the Icelander, the parties grew to as many as 1400 attendees (Williams 1920: 428). In the account of Laxdaelia Saga, the death of Hoskuld draws leaders from nearby villages to pay their respects at a feast (Muriel Press 2008: 58).
Inheritance
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| Monument Rune Stone |
Immediately prior to and during the ale, inheritance and the heir to the property of the deceased were determined. All property besides land was divided into three moderately equal portions (Williams 1920: 426). One portion was given to the living relatives to divide up amongst the most pious and devoted, one portion was buried with the individual, and one portion was sold to help pay for the large feast in honor of the dead. The Hillersjo Rune Stone, recovered in Sweden from the early eleventh century, tells of the wife inheriting all of the property of her husband (Sawyer 1993: 183). In most cases, property, especially land, was held by the wife until the children were old enough to claim it. In some cases this only applied if the wife had more than two children. The inheritance would frequently be used to resurrect a monument to the deceased. These monuments, precursors to the modern day tombstone, have been found in the archaeological record throughout Scandinavia, and offer some of the best evidence we have of Viking funeral goings-on (Williams 1920:424). After Christian influences affected Viking cultures, these monuments often featured inscriptions and epitaphs (though the one pictured is merely decorative) that give insight into the individuals these monuments honor. (Photo Williams 1920: 424).
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| Monument Field |
In some cases, where multiple people were laid to rest these monuments were erected on a grand scale, and became something akin to tourist sites for travelling merchants. Some of these monuments, which mark grave mounds, still stand today (Duczko 2004: 90). (Photo Williams 1920: 422)
Sources
Duczko, Wladsylaw. Viking Rus: Studies on the Presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe. Leiden: Brill, 2004. 90. Print.
Ibn Fadlan, and Richard Nelson Frye. Ibn Fadlan's Journey to Russia: A Tenth-century Traveler from Baghad to the Volga River. Princeton: Markus Wiener, 2005. 70-71. Print.
Press, Muriel A. C. Laxdaela Saga. London: Dent and, 2008. 58. Print.
Sawyer, Birgit, and P. H. Sawyer. Medieval Scandinavia: From Conversion to Reformation, circa 800-1500. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1993. 183.
Spurkland, Terje. Norwegian Runes and Runic Inscriptions. Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Boydell, 2005. 35. Print.
Williams, Gareth. "Viking Religion." BBC News. BBC. Web. 01 Apr. 2012. .
Williams, Mary Wilhelmine. Social Scandinavia in the Viking Age,. New York: Macmillan, 1920. 424-28. Print.
Wednesday, March 28, 2012
Beside Every Great Man: Women in Viking Burials
INTRODUCTION
When we think of Vikings, we tend to imagine large, bearded men in armor bearing swords, raping and pillaging. But where do women factor in this picture? Did they have stations of power in Viking culture, or were they merely domestic figures?
Outside of the common stereotypes, women are essentially invisible to the naked eye of Viking history. However, through interpretation of the archaeological record (especially burial evidence), we can begin to understand how women were perceived in Viking culture, how gender was expressed and defined, and essentially, how women lived and what was important to them. We seek to explore these questions through the lens of Mike Parker Pearson's book, The Archaeology of Death and Burial, and in particular his chapter on gender, gender biases, and reaffirming the equal roles and power of men and women.
Although Oseberg is a famous site, it has also been the subject of gender controversy, a topic discussed by Parker Pearson in Archaeology of Death. (1999: 109-113). Rather than giving the Oseberg queen her rightful power and status, archaeologists have interpreted her role as a sacrifice, a princess, a mother of a powerful Viking, or a daughter of some great leader or official. (Moen, 2011: 38-39).
Despite its controversy, Oseberg is an excellent example of a barrow grave designed to convey power and prestige. The external mound had a diameter of 40 meters and was six meters high at the time of its construction. (Moen, 2011:20). In terms of the goods found within the grave, an interesting detail to note is that no jewelry outside of a small, oval brooch was ever found. (Moen, 2011:20). A staff, textile tools, an extensive display of textiles, woodwork, strange rattles (considered to be connected with ritual, music, or equestrian acts), wagons, sleighs, and sails were found. The rattles are interesting because they could imply that the woman buried might have had some sort of everyday involvement in ritual. (Moen, 2011:20-21). Moen makes an interesting point when discussing the ship buried with the queen. According to Viking tradition, a burial ship must be ready for travel before it was interred with the diseased, and this ship had sails, a mast, and full set of oars. (Moen, 2011:21). Could this have implied that the women buried at Oseberg were involved, in some form or another, with travel?
Another interesting topic of note is the positioning of Oseberg, and its connection to the power of those buried there. It was built on a plain, as opposed to the traditional hill, which implies a matter of landscape manipulation and control. (Moen, 2011:24).
Moen's text is fascinating because not only does she go into great detail about Oseberg, but argues against some of the traditional explanations. She does not believe that the two women interred with the ship were of different social status. Instead, she argues that no evidence can be found in their attire that supports the previous hypothesis. (Moen 2011:26). Both women, older and younger, died of horrible diseases (one of cancer, the other might have had a brain tumor), but it is actually difficult to separate them in terms of social class. (Moen 2011:26). A. W. Brogger tried to identify one of the Oseberg women as Queen Asa of the Ynglinga family, but Moen argues (an interesting connection to Parker Pearson) that this is flawed because it depends on a connection with men and male power structures. Moen suggests that the women could have been involved strongly with Viking ritual based on the grave goods (rattles, tapestries, animal heads, etc). (Moen, 2011: 27.). She also argues that they could have gained their prestige through the production of textile goods, independent of male influence. (Moen, 2011:27).
Kaupang is a site completely different from the Oseberg shipwreck. It is remarkable because it shows evidence of men and women buried beside each other as equals, with little or no difference in how they are interred. (Moen, 2011: 38). There are four large concentrations of graves at Kaupang: Lamoya, Bikjholberget, Nordre Kaupang, and Sondre Kaupang. An interesting fact about Nordre Kaupang, for instance, is the shape of the mounds associated with females. Five out of six female graves were in long, rather than round barrows. Men, however, were not interred in long barrows. (Moen, 2011: 30-33). Also, the high positioning of the graves, especially at Bikjholberget, suggests that both men and women were important social players at Kaupang. (Moen, 2011: 38).
Kaupang was a market place, and therefore a site of economic significance, and this is shown in the goods interred in female graves. Textiles, beads, iron, nails, horse bits, fishing hooks, knives, cauldrons, rods, buckets, sickles, hinges, etc all suggest a connection to economic pursuits. (Moen, 2011: 50-55).
Orkney is another example of a grave conveying unique and different conceptions of Viking women. Orkney, or in particular, Westness, is located in Scotland, a far cry from the Norwegian graves above. The presence of a young woman and a newborn infant far from their native country shows us that women travelled with men, and helped to colonize new lands. (Jesch, 1995: 9).
Goods interred with her include a bronze basin, a knife, a pair of shears, a sickle (all outdoor implements), wool combs, brooches, beads, and the most unique and interesting: a Celtic silver-ringed brooch inset with gold filigree panels, which was dated to around the 8th c BCE. This brooch, as Jesch argues, is of a style typically found in Scotland and Ireland, but the woman buried there was Viking in origin. The brooch was also quite worn, showing that the deceased woman was not its original owner. (Jesch, 1995: 9-10).
Little else is known about this woman, but the burial tells us a great deal about Viking culture and helps dispel the stereotypical male-dominated views. This woman was young, buried with a baby, domestic implements, and jewelry of some importance. She was not a slave, but a girl traveling to a new destination to seek out a different life with her people. Her brooch also tells us that some sort of collaboration or contribution could have occurred between the Norse men and women and the natives of Orkney. Perhaps it was taken as a war gift, perhaps not.
WOMEN IN RUNES AND MONUMENTS
In addition to burials, evidence found in runestones (used to commemorate the dead, hence the connection) shows that women were actually celebrated by men. Runestones typically commemorate good Viking men, so finding a stone dedicated to a woman is a very rare. The greatest example of a stone connected to a woman is the Odendisa Runestone, also called the Hassmyra Runestone.
The Odendisa Runestone was dedicated to a woman who shared its name. Her husband, Holmgot, and her brother erected it in her honor after her death. It is notable because in the poem etched into the stone, Odendisa is called "som rader for garden" meaning, "she who runs the farm." (Graslund, 2001:83-84). This is interesting because it can be compared to provincial law at the time (thirteenth century), which states that women actually had the right to inherit a man's possessions after his death (interesting contrast to what we learned above!). (Graslund, 2001:86-87).
Here is the verse inscribed on the stone:
CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE
In conclusion, a purely male-dominant view of Viking society is both flawed and completely untrue. As we have seen, the burial and archaeological evidence suggests that women made their own way in the world, possessed their own power, without the influence of men. They were domestic figures, but not just. They were involved in colonization, trade, religion and ritual, animal husbandry, production, and held positions of power.
The renewed analysis of women in Viking culture is important to this class because it shows that believing and continuing the normative view is unacceptable in the academic world, and taking a step back to question it is absolutely necessary.
Sources:
Graslund, Anne-Sofie, "The Position of Iron Age Scandinavian Women" Gender and the Archaeology of Death. Altamira Press (2001).
Jesch, Judith, "Life and Death - The Evidence of Archaeology" Women in the Viking Age. Boydell Press (1995).
Jesch, J.. "Viking Women." Bbc.co.uk. BBC, Marc. Web. 28 Mar 2012. .
Jochens, Jenny, "Gudny Bodvarsdottir and Gudrun Gjukadotti: Nordic-Germanic Continuity" Women in Old Norse Society. Cornell University Press (1995).
Bianci, Marco, ed. "Scandinavian Runic-text Database."Department of Scandinavian Languages. Upsalla University, 2012. Web. 28 Mar 2012. .
Moen, Marianne, The Gendered Landscape: A Discussion on Gender, Status, and Power in the Norwegian Viking Age Landscape. BAR International Series (2011).
Pearson, Michael. Archaeology of Death and Burial Texas A&M University Press (1999).
Short, W.. "The Role of Women in Norse Society."Hurstwic. N.p., 2012. Web. 28 Mar 2012. .
Vea, Marit Synnøve. "Women in the Viking Age."Viking Kings. The Avaldsnes Project, n.d. Web. 28 Mar 2012.
When we think of Vikings, we tend to imagine large, bearded men in armor bearing swords, raping and pillaging. But where do women factor in this picture? Did they have stations of power in Viking culture, or were they merely domestic figures?
Outside of the common stereotypes, women are essentially invisible to the naked eye of Viking history. However, through interpretation of the archaeological record (especially burial evidence), we can begin to understand how women were perceived in Viking culture, how gender was expressed and defined, and essentially, how women lived and what was important to them. We seek to explore these questions through the lens of Mike Parker Pearson's book, The Archaeology of Death and Burial, and in particular his chapter on gender, gender biases, and reaffirming the equal roles and power of men and women.
ROLE OF WOMEN IN VIKING
SOCIETY
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| A sketch of a Viking longhouse |
Viking women, according to the old Norse lawbook Grágás, could not become chieftains, shave their hair short like a man's, wear men's clothing, or carry weapons. Their role was confined to the domestic, the hearth, farm, food, children, and house, and they were under the constant lawful protection of a male relative or spouse. They could not bear witness at court or even speak at village assemblies. (Short, Hurstwic.org). However, how does this explain the role of women in other pursuits, even war?
.jpg) |
| A pg from the Gragas |
Women existed within Viking culture, but they were not considered strictly "Viking." The Old Norse term Vikingar is masculine and refers to those men who joined raiding parties and spread out across Europe to Constantinople. (Jesch, 2011: BBC.com). However, women did participate in trade, travelled with men to create permanent settlements across the world, could wield weapons (as opposed to the Grágás), and were portrayed in Norse myths as powerful, vengeful beings (see the Valkyries and Freya, etc). (Quinn, 2005:20-28). The annals also portray women as strong figures, albeit in domestic conditions. Gudny Bodvarsdottir is one such woman. She was married young, but took control over her husband's house and farm, which she ran even during invasions and wars. (Jochens, 1995: 7-11). Although Gudny seemed like a stereotypical housewife, she was a capable, strong woman who took control of her situation.
The view of Viking culture as "male dominated," with women solely tending the hearth and men solely wielding swords and leadership positions is highly flawed and erases women's agency within Viking history. (Short, 2012: Hurstwic.org). As Marianne Moen states in her work, A Discussion on Gender, Status and Power in the Norwegian Viking Age Landscape, there is no universal gendered experience, but a wide spectrum of stories. (2011: 3-5). We cannot merely accept the power of Viking men whilst ignoring that of Viking women. Parker Pearson discusses O'Shea's concept of associative status, which can be applied to assumptions about women in the Viking age. (1999: 109). Hurstwic.org and other websites take the associative stance when arguing that women had little power, and that the power they did have was determined by men and their laws. Determining whether or not this is true in burial evidence is where the archaeological record is most useful.
HOW THESE ROLES
ARE SUPPORTED AND SOMETIMES CONTESTED IN BURIALS
Although burial evidence shows varied stories of the lives of Viking women, one main problem has surfaced in the sheer lack of graves dating to the Viking Age (1 in every 4 graves is proven female). (Moen, 2011: 6). However, the burials archaeologists have unearthed provide a wealth of knowledge. Of course, one must also note that the grandest Viking grave ever discovered, the Oseberg Shipwreck, was a woman's grave.
Gendered graves are, as Parker Pearson states, highly connected to status. (1999: 109). In Norwegian Viking culture, monumental burial mounds, particularly those that were visible, were used to convey power and status roles. Although many of these are considered male graves, and male expressions of power and prestige, women were interred in secondary positions within these mounds. However, in terms of the grave goods buried with both sexes, there is no discernable difference in shape or wealth. (Moen, 2011: 38). A video showing an example of Viking barrow graves (elevation, manipulation of landscape, etc) in Borre, Norway can be seen below.
Parker Pearson brings up the topic of Viking women burials in his book as well. He discusses the finding of weighing scales in women's graves and how they have been interpreted by the academic community, and the problem of gender identity. (1999:102). These scales have been seen as gifts from marauding husbands, or meaningless tokens of status. However, these goods may go hand in hand with the written Scandinavian sources that tell us women were involved in the market and trade. Anne Starlsberg, quoted in Archaeology of Death, believes that the interpretations of the scales as gifts rather than possessions stems from the cage of tradition archaeology has been locked in for decades. (Parker Pearson, 1999:102). Alluding to the case of the barrows presented above, Parker Pearson argues that although women are rarely seen in primary positions within the barrows, there are twice as many female secondary graves as there are male. (1999:102). Dommasnes, another scholar quoted, analyzed the grave goods placed with women and determined that, as they were interred with a range of production tools, including textile implements, women could have been involved not only in trade, but in cloth production. (Parker Pearson 1999:102). This alone challenges the traditional, purely domestic role of women.
Taking this further, evidence also exists of women buried with weapons. Women were not interred with weapons at the same level as men, but exceptions to the rule exist. Written sources such as the writings of Ibn Fadlan, etc attest to the presence of female warriors, and women warriors exist in both Rus' and Danish Viking writings. (Moen 2011: 41). Goods interred at grave C15214-15218 at Kaupang consisted of a double-edged sword, a knife, hook-shaped implements, and strike-a-lights, all tools associated with Viking warriors. (Moen 2011: 56). Grave C21843, 21960 at Lamoya (a barrow) consists of an implement shaped like Thor's hammer, a knife, fishing hooks, and strap buckles. Another grave at Kaupang also shows the burial of a woman with an axe, and a horse bit and mount. (Moen 2011:50).
The Borre barrows, which were symbols of power and status.
Taking this further, evidence also exists of women buried with weapons. Women were not interred with weapons at the same level as men, but exceptions to the rule exist. Written sources such as the writings of Ibn Fadlan, etc attest to the presence of female warriors, and women warriors exist in both Rus' and Danish Viking writings. (Moen 2011: 41). Goods interred at grave C15214-15218 at Kaupang consisted of a double-edged sword, a knife, hook-shaped implements, and strike-a-lights, all tools associated with Viking warriors. (Moen 2011: 56). Grave C21843, 21960 at Lamoya (a barrow) consists of an implement shaped like Thor's hammer, a knife, fishing hooks, and strap buckles. Another grave at Kaupang also shows the burial of a woman with an axe, and a horse bit and mount. (Moen 2011:50).
EXAMPLES -- OSEBERG, KAUPANG, AND ORKNEY
Three great examples of Viking burials show the variation in the status and power of women. The Oseberg shipwreck, arguably the most famous of the three, is a grand burial of a Viking queen and her female servant. Kaupang is an urban example of women's involvement in trade. Finally, Orkney shows that women travelled and were involved in colonization of new territory.
Three great examples of Viking burials show the variation in the status and power of women. The Oseberg shipwreck, arguably the most famous of the three, is a grand burial of a Viking queen and her female servant. Kaupang is an urban example of women's involvement in trade. Finally, Orkney shows that women travelled and were involved in colonization of new territory.
 |
| The Oseberg Ship |
Although Oseberg is a famous site, it has also been the subject of gender controversy, a topic discussed by Parker Pearson in Archaeology of Death. (1999: 109-113). Rather than giving the Oseberg queen her rightful power and status, archaeologists have interpreted her role as a sacrifice, a princess, a mother of a powerful Viking, or a daughter of some great leader or official. (Moen, 2011: 38-39).
Despite its controversy, Oseberg is an excellent example of a barrow grave designed to convey power and prestige. The external mound had a diameter of 40 meters and was six meters high at the time of its construction. (Moen, 2011:20). In terms of the goods found within the grave, an interesting detail to note is that no jewelry outside of a small, oval brooch was ever found. (Moen, 2011:20). A staff, textile tools, an extensive display of textiles, woodwork, strange rattles (considered to be connected with ritual, music, or equestrian acts), wagons, sleighs, and sails were found. The rattles are interesting because they could imply that the woman buried might have had some sort of everyday involvement in ritual. (Moen, 2011:20-21). Moen makes an interesting point when discussing the ship buried with the queen. According to Viking tradition, a burial ship must be ready for travel before it was interred with the diseased, and this ship had sails, a mast, and full set of oars. (Moen, 2011:21). Could this have implied that the women buried at Oseberg were involved, in some form or another, with travel?
Another interesting topic of note is the positioning of Oseberg, and its connection to the power of those buried there. It was built on a plain, as opposed to the traditional hill, which implies a matter of landscape manipulation and control. (Moen, 2011:24).
Moen's text is fascinating because not only does she go into great detail about Oseberg, but argues against some of the traditional explanations. She does not believe that the two women interred with the ship were of different social status. Instead, she argues that no evidence can be found in their attire that supports the previous hypothesis. (Moen 2011:26). Both women, older and younger, died of horrible diseases (one of cancer, the other might have had a brain tumor), but it is actually difficult to separate them in terms of social class. (Moen 2011:26). A. W. Brogger tried to identify one of the Oseberg women as Queen Asa of the Ynglinga family, but Moen argues (an interesting connection to Parker Pearson) that this is flawed because it depends on a connection with men and male power structures. Moen suggests that the women could have been involved strongly with Viking ritual based on the grave goods (rattles, tapestries, animal heads, etc). (Moen, 2011: 27.). She also argues that they could have gained their prestige through the production of textile goods, independent of male influence. (Moen, 2011:27).
 |
| A Model of Kaupang |
Kaupang was a market place, and therefore a site of economic significance, and this is shown in the goods interred in female graves. Textiles, beads, iron, nails, horse bits, fishing hooks, knives, cauldrons, rods, buckets, sickles, hinges, etc all suggest a connection to economic pursuits. (Moen, 2011: 50-55).
 |
| Burial recreation from Orkney |
Orkney is another example of a grave conveying unique and different conceptions of Viking women. Orkney, or in particular, Westness, is located in Scotland, a far cry from the Norwegian graves above. The presence of a young woman and a newborn infant far from their native country shows us that women travelled with men, and helped to colonize new lands. (Jesch, 1995: 9).
Goods interred with her include a bronze basin, a knife, a pair of shears, a sickle (all outdoor implements), wool combs, brooches, beads, and the most unique and interesting: a Celtic silver-ringed brooch inset with gold filigree panels, which was dated to around the 8th c BCE. This brooch, as Jesch argues, is of a style typically found in Scotland and Ireland, but the woman buried there was Viking in origin. The brooch was also quite worn, showing that the deceased woman was not its original owner. (Jesch, 1995: 9-10).
WOMEN IN RUNES AND MONUMENTS
 |
| The Odendisa Runestone |
In addition to burials, evidence found in runestones (used to commemorate the dead, hence the connection) shows that women were actually celebrated by men. Runestones typically commemorate good Viking men, so finding a stone dedicated to a woman is a very rare. The greatest example of a stone connected to a woman is the Odendisa Runestone, also called the Hassmyra Runestone.
The Odendisa Runestone was dedicated to a woman who shared its name. Her husband, Holmgot, and her brother erected it in her honor after her death. It is notable because in the poem etched into the stone, Odendisa is called "som rader for garden" meaning, "she who runs the farm." (Graslund, 2001:83-84). This is interesting because it can be compared to provincial law at the time (thirteenth century), which states that women actually had the right to inherit a man's possessions after his death (interesting contrast to what we learned above!). (Graslund, 2001:86-87).
Here is the verse inscribed on the stone:
KumbR hifrøya There will come
til Hasvimyra to Hassmyra
æigi bætri, no better housewife,
þan byi raðr. who arranges the estate.
(Upsalla University, 2012)
This runestone, hand in hand with the burial evidence shown above, paints a completely different picture of Viking women than we are traditionally used to.
CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE
In conclusion, a purely male-dominant view of Viking society is both flawed and completely untrue. As we have seen, the burial and archaeological evidence suggests that women made their own way in the world, possessed their own power, without the influence of men. They were domestic figures, but not just. They were involved in colonization, trade, religion and ritual, animal husbandry, production, and held positions of power.
The renewed analysis of women in Viking culture is important to this class because it shows that believing and continuing the normative view is unacceptable in the academic world, and taking a step back to question it is absolutely necessary.
Sources:
Graslund, Anne-Sofie, "The Position of Iron Age Scandinavian Women" Gender and the Archaeology of Death. Altamira Press (2001).
Jesch, Judith, "Life and Death - The Evidence of Archaeology" Women in the Viking Age. Boydell Press (1995).
Jesch, J.. "Viking Women." Bbc.co.uk. BBC, Marc. Web. 28 Mar 2012. .
Jochens, Jenny, "Gudny Bodvarsdottir and Gudrun Gjukadotti: Nordic-Germanic Continuity" Women in Old Norse Society. Cornell University Press (1995).
Bianci, Marco, ed. "Scandinavian Runic-text Database."Department of Scandinavian Languages. Upsalla University, 2012. Web. 28 Mar 2012. .
Moen, Marianne, The Gendered Landscape: A Discussion on Gender, Status, and Power in the Norwegian Viking Age Landscape. BAR International Series (2011).
Pearson, Michael. Archaeology of Death and Burial Texas A&M University Press (1999).
Short, W.. "The Role of Women in Norse Society."Hurstwic. N.p., 2012. Web. 28 Mar 2012. .
Vea, Marit Synnøve. "Women in the Viking Age."Viking Kings. The Avaldsnes Project, n.d. Web. 28 Mar 2012.
Thursday, March 15, 2012
Viking Sacrifice: What assumptions can we believe?
Introduction:
Any person that has just the slightest amount of knowledge about the great Vikings more than likely assumes that there was sacrifice of some sort that took place during this historical time period. This is a fairly reasonable assumptions because the Vikings did in fact practice sacrifice, but the question posed here is what evidence do we have to prove this claim? Interestingly enough, there is evidence in both archaeological finds and in literature that proves and produces findings that the almighty Vikings did in fact practice sacrifice. There are several claims made by both archaeologists and authors in literature that give today’s society belief that human and animal sacrifice were a significant part of the Viking culture. The difficult part is trying to distinguish the truth about Viking sacrifices from the assumptions gathered by old myths and legends.
Archaeological Evidence of HUMAN sacrifice:
A classic example of human sacrifice was the killing of a slave girl by the Rus. It is believed that the girl was sacrificed to accompany her master in death (Pearson 1999:17). Other examples of sacrifice from the Viking world include the finding of the Viking queen buried with the body of an elderly woman in the Oseberg Ship in Norway. The elderly woman is believed to possibly be the queen’s personal slave (Pearson 1999:99). More recently in Poland, these recent and past discoveries are great find for archaeologists, but can a legitimate assumption of human sacrifice be made with just a small amount of proof? There are instances of double burial, which simply means where more than one person was buried at the same time, which may or may not be related to human sacrifice (Jesch 1991:24). The technology of archaeology has advanced greatly in the last hundred years but viking burials have been dug up for longer than that.
Early on archaeologists were perhaps to quick to assume that a double burial must mean human sacrifice (Jesch 1991:24). Modern evacuations show that people could be buried together, yet that second person could have been buried soon after the first person, but not at the same time. Archaeological examples of this include the burials Hestehagen in Norway, which are thought to be a couple buried together who died years apart, i.e. burial of a widow in her husband’s grave (Jesch 1991:25). However, a significant number of Viking graves contain individuals who were more than likely sacrificed to accompany the primary occupant. Archaeologists have several tricks that help them identify sacrifice based on certain markers on the body and in the grave. These markers include burial grave findings of decapitation, hands and feet bound together, and broken necks, possibly from hangings (Brink 2008:266). There are several famous burial examples of human sacrifice including: the burial at the fort wall at Birka, which involves a body of a young male that has been decapitated, and laid over an elder man furnished with weapons (Holmquist-Olausson1990). Another interesting discovery was found at a woman’s grave from Gerdrup near Roskilde containing a woman and man, the man appeared to have a broken neck (Christensen 1981). There is plenty of archaeological discoveries that show that the Vikings could have practiced forms of sacrifice, but that poses the question of, “WHY did the Vikings use sacrifice during burial practices?”
Viking Reasons for Sacrifice…..
Sacrifice in a way, was apart of the Viking religion, it was a way of life for the water adventurers. It is believed that most all of their sacrifices were to Odin (mythological speaking, Odin was the father and ruler of all the Gods) (Belloni Du Chaillu 1889:365). Alike many cultures, the Vikings believed the sacrificing of humans and animals to Odin was done for reasons such as keeping their ship from sinking, granting them victory in a battle, personal ornaments, and burial rituals (Brill-Leiden 1969:618-621). As mentioned, there have been archaeological finds that point to men and women possibly being stabbed, beaten to death, tied by their hands and feet, and strangled. Even instances of possible animal sacrifice are seen in burial sites. In seventh century ship burials at Vendel in Sweden, and Oseberg in Norway, and Ladby in Denmark, considerable numbers of horses were killed at the funeral and laid out in or around the ship (Brill-Leiden 1969:619). Though these are clearly legitimate assumptions made from an archaeological stance, literature of the Viking time period also points to the practice of sacrifice.
CONCLUSION:
The Viking era is something researchers of all types are and have been interested in for some time. Between the literature of that time period and the archaeological discoveries, the people of today have a better understanding of what the lives of Vikings were like. We can only hope there will be more discoveries and findings to make the assumptions into certain truths about this great Viking time era. With different speculations about what archaeologists have found in or around burial sites, we have a good idea of how burial rituals were practiced, but it also gives us a foundation for not only how the Vikings died, but also, how they lived.
Sources:
Any person that has just the slightest amount of knowledge about the great Vikings more than likely assumes that there was sacrifice of some sort that took place during this historical time period. This is a fairly reasonable assumptions because the Vikings did in fact practice sacrifice, but the question posed here is what evidence do we have to prove this claim? Interestingly enough, there is evidence in both archaeological finds and in literature that proves and produces findings that the almighty Vikings did in fact practice sacrifice. There are several claims made by both archaeologists and authors in literature that give today’s society belief that human and animal sacrifice were a significant part of the Viking culture. The difficult part is trying to distinguish the truth about Viking sacrifices from the assumptions gathered by old myths and legends.
Archaeological Evidence of HUMAN sacrifice:
 |
| A Polish-Viking Double Burial |
Early on archaeologists were perhaps to quick to assume that a double burial must mean human sacrifice (Jesch 1991:24). Modern evacuations show that people could be buried together, yet that second person could have been buried soon after the first person, but not at the same time. Archaeological examples of this include the burials Hestehagen in Norway, which are thought to be a couple buried together who died years apart, i.e. burial of a widow in her husband’s grave (Jesch 1991:25). However, a significant number of Viking graves contain individuals who were more than likely sacrificed to accompany the primary occupant. Archaeologists have several tricks that help them identify sacrifice based on certain markers on the body and in the grave. These markers include burial grave findings of decapitation, hands and feet bound together, and broken necks, possibly from hangings (Brink 2008:266). There are several famous burial examples of human sacrifice including: the burial at the fort wall at Birka, which involves a body of a young male that has been decapitated, and laid over an elder man furnished with weapons (Holmquist-Olausson1990). Another interesting discovery was found at a woman’s grave from Gerdrup near Roskilde containing a woman and man, the man appeared to have a broken neck (Christensen 1981). There is plenty of archaeological discoveries that show that the Vikings could have practiced forms of sacrifice, but that poses the question of, “WHY did the Vikings use sacrifice during burial practices?”
Viking Reasons for Sacrifice…..
Sacrifice in a way, was apart of the Viking religion, it was a way of life for the water adventurers. It is believed that most all of their sacrifices were to Odin (mythological speaking, Odin was the father and ruler of all the Gods) (Belloni Du Chaillu 1889:365). Alike many cultures, the Vikings believed the sacrificing of humans and animals to Odin was done for reasons such as keeping their ship from sinking, granting them victory in a battle, personal ornaments, and burial rituals (Brill-Leiden 1969:618-621). As mentioned, there have been archaeological finds that point to men and women possibly being stabbed, beaten to death, tied by their hands and feet, and strangled. Even instances of possible animal sacrifice are seen in burial sites. In seventh century ship burials at Vendel in Sweden, and Oseberg in Norway, and Ladby in Denmark, considerable numbers of horses were killed at the funeral and laid out in or around the ship (Brill-Leiden 1969:619). Though these are clearly legitimate assumptions made from an archaeological stance, literature of the Viking time period also points to the practice of sacrifice.
Elden den "köllas" av nio slags ved, The fire is lit by nine kinds of wood,
det är gammal sed. that is the old custom.
Offer till andarna skänkes, A sacrifice is offered [to the spirits],
med blodet sig alla bestänkes. everyone is sprinkled with the blood.
Det bästa till andar föräras, The best part is gifted to spirits,
det som blir över skall av männen förtäras. what remains is to be consumed by the men.
CONCLUSION:
The Viking era is something researchers of all types are and have been interested in for some time. Between the literature of that time period and the archaeological discoveries, the people of today have a better understanding of what the lives of Vikings were like. We can only hope there will be more discoveries and findings to make the assumptions into certain truths about this great Viking time era. With different speculations about what archaeologists have found in or around burial sites, we have a good idea of how burial rituals were practiced, but it also gives us a foundation for not only how the Vikings died, but also, how they lived.
Sources:
Belloni Du Chaillu,
Paul.
The
Viking Age.
New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
(1889) P. 365.
Brill-Leiden, E.J. Historia Religionum I: Religions of the Past. Netherlands. (1969.) P. 618-621.
Brink, Stefan. The Viking World. London and New York: Routledge. (2008.) P. 266-268.
Christensen, T. ‘Gerdup-graven’, Romu. Årsskrift fra Roskilde Museum. (1981) 2: 19-28.
Holmquist-Olausson, L. “Älgmannen” från Birka. Presentation av en nyligen undersökt krigargrav med människooffer, Fornvännen. (1990) 85: 175-82.
Brill-Leiden, E.J. Historia Religionum I: Religions of the Past. Netherlands. (1969.) P. 618-621.
Brink, Stefan. The Viking World. London and New York: Routledge. (2008.) P. 266-268.
Christensen, T. ‘Gerdup-graven’, Romu. Årsskrift fra Roskilde Museum. (1981) 2: 19-28.
Holmquist-Olausson, L. “Älgmannen” från Birka. Presentation av en nyligen undersökt krigargrav med människooffer, Fornvännen. (1990) 85: 175-82.
Jesch,
Judith. Women in the Viking Age. United
Kingdom: Boydell Press. (1991) p. 24-26.
Pearson, M.P. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Texas A&M Press: College Station. (2008) p. 17.
Watson,
Traci.
Pictures:
Mysterious Viking-era Graves Found with Treasure. National
Geographic, December 16, 2011. (2011) P. 1-2.
Pearson, M.P. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Texas A&M Press: College Station. (2008) p. 17.
Wednesday, February 29, 2012
Viking Ships
 |
| Recently discovered burial in Scotland |
Buried Ships
In Northern Europe alone there are 420 examples of buried ships discovered in archaeology, not including sites that include ship-like structures of non-traditional material (stone) (Gould 2011:178). Now, not all of these are Viking burials, as the great Sutton Hoo in Scotland is interpreted to be prior to the Viking age and Anglo-Saxon in origin. In the Icelandic sagas, it is suggested that - at least the Icelandic - Vikings did not believe that everyone went on to the after life, but that most people stayed in their burial mounds for eternity (Short 2010:71) - although it is important to note that there are distinctions between Icelandic viking burial rituals and others (Guthmunsson 1967:8).Whether this means those who were buried with their ships were of the select few chosen to join Odin, their god, is unclear.
Oseberg
 | |||
| (Photo from Brogger 1921:2) |
What can we learn from Oseberg?
Oseberg was neither a trade ship, nor a warship as an expert can see from its lack of strength and the amount of decoration (Bruun 1997:1287). This would indicate that the ship was possibly built as just a funerary vessel. Short suggests that the grave goods in simple graves included only items which would be used in everyday life (2012:70) but the ship which is obviously part of a more elaborate grave, is not. Although the boat predates the peak of Viking ship carpentry (Gould 2011:178) and is not actually meant for sea fairing, the ship structure is indicative of the traditional engineering of a sea vessel.
Transportantion
Ships are an obvious transport vessel. Buried with the ship was a richly decorated wagon, sledges (like sleighs), what appears to be a tent, and remains of dogs, horses, and oxen (Brogger 1921:6). The number of transportation vessels buried with these two deceased is significant in trying to understand the belief systems of these Vikings. They were equipped to traverse all types of landscape and the rich decoration of the items would indicate there was belief in something beyond and possibly even a spiritual being that these decorations are meant to impress.
We need to be careful in our speculations however, since burials are not just meant to represent and honor the dead, but they are also meant to suit the needs of the living (Ucko 1969:265). These offerings of grave goods to this extreme probably has less to do with what the people did before their deaths and more to do with what the living believe is necessary for safe passage into the afterlife (Pearson 1999:9).
Oseberg was neither a trade ship, nor a warship as an expert can see from its lack of strength and the amount of decoration (Bruun 1997:1287). This would indicate that the ship was possibly built as just a funerary vessel. Short suggests that the grave goods in simple graves included only items which would be used in everyday life (2012:70) but the ship which is obviously part of a more elaborate grave, is not. Although the boat predates the peak of Viking ship carpentry (Gould 2011:178) and is not actually meant for sea fairing, the ship structure is indicative of the traditional engineering of a sea vessel.
Transportantion
Ships are an obvious transport vessel. Buried with the ship was a richly decorated wagon, sledges (like sleighs), what appears to be a tent, and remains of dogs, horses, and oxen (Brogger 1921:6). The number of transportation vessels buried with these two deceased is significant in trying to understand the belief systems of these Vikings. They were equipped to traverse all types of landscape and the rich decoration of the items would indicate there was belief in something beyond and possibly even a spiritual being that these decorations are meant to impress.
We need to be careful in our speculations however, since burials are not just meant to represent and honor the dead, but they are also meant to suit the needs of the living (Ucko 1969:265). These offerings of grave goods to this extreme probably has less to do with what the people did before their deaths and more to do with what the living believe is necessary for safe passage into the afterlife (Pearson 1999:9).
Sources:
Bonde,
Neils, and Christensen, " Arne Emil "Dendrochronology dating of the
Viking Age Ship burials at Oseberg, Gokstad and Tune" Antiquity. (1993) 67
Brogger, Anton. "The Oseberg Ship" American Scandinavian Review (1921)
Bruun, Per "The Viking Ship" Journal of Coastal Research (1997) 13:4
Gould, Richard. Sailing Ships of the Middle Ages. Archaeology and the Social History of Ships. Cambridge University Press. (2011)
Guthmundsson, Barth. The Origin of the Icelanders. Nebraska. (1967)
Holck, Per "The Oseberg Ship Burial, Norway: New Thoughts on the skeletons from the Grave Mound". European Journal of Archaeology (2006) 9:185
Pearson, Michael. Archaeology of Death and Burial Texas A&M University Press (1999)
Pearson, Michael. Archaeology of Death and Burial Texas A&M University Press (1999)
Short, William. Icelanders in the Viking Age People of the Sagas. M(2010)
Ucko, Peter. "Ethnography and Archaeological Interpretation of Funerary Remains" World Archaeology (1969) 1:2
Ucko, Peter. "Ethnography and Archaeological Interpretation of Funerary Remains" World Archaeology (1969) 1:2
Wednesday, February 8, 2012
Who Were the Vikings?
Before we can begin analyzing the ritual practices and the afterlife belief systems of the Vikings, we have to identify who the Vikings actually were.
This is not a Viking, and neither is this.
The Vikings were a group of people from Scandinavia who for upwards of 300 years in the 8th, 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries A.D. pillaged and plundered much of the northwestern part of Europe extending as far wast on Constantinople, as west as Greenland and as far south as the Strait of Gibraltar. In the late 8th century the people who are known as the Vikings began small invasion in search of wealth and power (Sawyer 1982). Initially the kings were not involved in the invasions of the Vikings, but as the expanse of the Viking wealth and influence grew the Kings began to take their share (Sawyer 1982).
After a prosperous Bronze Age, the Iron Age trade network of riches to the Scandinavian peninsula was much depleted because the early methods for making iron goods and weaponry failed at latitudes as far north as most of the peninsula (Jones 1968). This as a result meant that the wealth of the Viking nations was quickly depleted and they were forced to make do with what they had, or invade the most prosperous, southerly nations. Despite the Viking inferiority in metalworking, they developed and refined boat technologies that allowed the Vikings to easily roam the North Atlantic and to sail up river (Sawyer 1982).
In the archaeological record we have a rich history of Viking ships because there were several instances where a ship was buried as a funerary ritual to honor a dead high in status (Gould 2011). Many of these burials were rich in grave goods, and as we can tell from Ibn Fadlan's account of a Viking burial, there was as much happening ethnographically that is lost to the archaeologist as can be re-discovered in the ground (Pearson 1999). These Viking burial ships are like the great tombs of Egypt, survive the test of time and are saved for the elite.
They say that 'history is written by the winners' and this is one case where it is really true. Must of what we have in terms of written primary sources from the age of the Vikings comes from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, the Icelandic Saga, and a few other sources from France, Rome and other sources. The Vikings did not write down their own history. There are instances where runes, a type of writing, were left on stones, grave markers and swords that can be helpful in our discovery of Viking beliefs and their extent of influence on culture, but without archaeological context, they are of little use (Page 1971).
Over the centuries the Viking influence on Northern Europe grew and at points parts nations were divided into Viking rule and native rule. In this blog we are going to look at the burial practices of the Vikings. Over the course of the next few months we will look at ship burial sites such as Sutton Hoo and Oseberg as well as other burials that are lower in rank. We will examine the influence of Christianity on Viking burial and the influence of Viking beliefs and customs on the people whose home were invaded. Not all of Viking history is characterized by invasion, and we will take a look at the burial rituals for King Cnut and his successors. The real question we hope to answer is not what did the Vikings do, but what can it tell us about who they were?
Sources:
Page, Raymond; Parsons, David. How long did the Scandinavian Language Survive in England? The Epigraphical Evidence. Runes and Runic inscirptions: collected essays on Anglo-Saxon and Viking runes. (1971) p. 183
Jones, Gwyen. A History of the Vikings. Oxford University Press. (1968)
Gould, Richard. Sailing Ships of the Middle Ages. Archaeology and the Social History of Ships. Cambridge University Press. (2011) p. 171
Sawyer, P. H. Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe, A.D. 700-1100. Methuen & Co. ltd. (1982)
Pearson, Mike Parker. Archaeology of Death and Burial. Texas A & M University Press. (1999) p 1-3
This is not a Viking, and neither is this.
The Vikings were a group of people from Scandinavia who for upwards of 300 years in the 8th, 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries A.D. pillaged and plundered much of the northwestern part of Europe extending as far wast on Constantinople, as west as Greenland and as far south as the Strait of Gibraltar. In the late 8th century the people who are known as the Vikings began small invasion in search of wealth and power (Sawyer 1982). Initially the kings were not involved in the invasions of the Vikings, but as the expanse of the Viking wealth and influence grew the Kings began to take their share (Sawyer 1982).
After a prosperous Bronze Age, the Iron Age trade network of riches to the Scandinavian peninsula was much depleted because the early methods for making iron goods and weaponry failed at latitudes as far north as most of the peninsula (Jones 1968). This as a result meant that the wealth of the Viking nations was quickly depleted and they were forced to make do with what they had, or invade the most prosperous, southerly nations. Despite the Viking inferiority in metalworking, they developed and refined boat technologies that allowed the Vikings to easily roam the North Atlantic and to sail up river (Sawyer 1982).
In the archaeological record we have a rich history of Viking ships because there were several instances where a ship was buried as a funerary ritual to honor a dead high in status (Gould 2011). Many of these burials were rich in grave goods, and as we can tell from Ibn Fadlan's account of a Viking burial, there was as much happening ethnographically that is lost to the archaeologist as can be re-discovered in the ground (Pearson 1999). These Viking burial ships are like the great tombs of Egypt, survive the test of time and are saved for the elite.
They say that 'history is written by the winners' and this is one case where it is really true. Must of what we have in terms of written primary sources from the age of the Vikings comes from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, the Icelandic Saga, and a few other sources from France, Rome and other sources. The Vikings did not write down their own history. There are instances where runes, a type of writing, were left on stones, grave markers and swords that can be helpful in our discovery of Viking beliefs and their extent of influence on culture, but without archaeological context, they are of little use (Page 1971).
Over the centuries the Viking influence on Northern Europe grew and at points parts nations were divided into Viking rule and native rule. In this blog we are going to look at the burial practices of the Vikings. Over the course of the next few months we will look at ship burial sites such as Sutton Hoo and Oseberg as well as other burials that are lower in rank. We will examine the influence of Christianity on Viking burial and the influence of Viking beliefs and customs on the people whose home were invaded. Not all of Viking history is characterized by invasion, and we will take a look at the burial rituals for King Cnut and his successors. The real question we hope to answer is not what did the Vikings do, but what can it tell us about who they were?
Sources:
Page, Raymond; Parsons, David. How long did the Scandinavian Language Survive in England? The Epigraphical Evidence. Runes and Runic inscirptions: collected essays on Anglo-Saxon and Viking runes. (1971) p. 183
Jones, Gwyen. A History of the Vikings. Oxford University Press. (1968)
Gould, Richard. Sailing Ships of the Middle Ages. Archaeology and the Social History of Ships. Cambridge University Press. (2011) p. 171
Sawyer, P. H. Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe, A.D. 700-1100. Methuen & Co. ltd. (1982)
Pearson, Mike Parker. Archaeology of Death and Burial. Texas A & M University Press. (1999) p 1-3
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